Red Summer

Red Summer: The Racial Violence of 1919 and the Birth of the Civil Rights Movement

The summer of 1919 witnessed the worst outbreak of racial violence in American history. In cities from Washington to Chicago to rural Arkansas, white mobs attacked Black communities, killing hundreds and destroying millions of dollars in property. Yet this "Red Summer" has been largely erased from mainstream American memory.

This groundbreaking history reveals how the violence of 1919 transformed American race relations. Black veterans who had fought for democracy in France returned home determined to fight for it in America, organizing armed resistance that marked a decisive break with accommodation. The massacres prompted the NAACP's transformation from a small advocacy group into the nation's premier civil rights organization, while J. Edgar Hoover used the violence to justify permanent federal surveillance of Black activism that would persist for generations.

Drawing on archival research, survivor testimony, and previously overlooked sources, this book demonstrates how the Red Summer shaped everything that followed: the Harlem Renaissance's cultural flowering, the legal strategies that would dismantle Jim Crow, and the militant self-defense traditions that informed later movements. The story of 1919 reveals why America forgot this history-and why Black communities preserved it as essential knowledge for survival.